4.     Reproduction

4.1.                      The reproductive load concept

Fish usually reproduce when they have reached about half of the maximum size they are likely to reach (L_max). The size at which maturity is first reached is called L_m and the fraction L_m/L_max, called reproductive load, tends to be higher in small than in large fish. Thus, a goby with L_max=10 cm will have a value of L_m = 7 cm, while in a Basking shark with L_max » 10 m, L_m will be about 4 m. Given that fish of different sizes have different growth rates, their different L_m values imply very different ages at first maturity (t_m).

4.2.                      Small eggs and no worries

Fish differ from most other vertebrates in that for most species, parental care is very limited or non-existent. The typical bony fish produces a large number of small eggs which hatch and become part of the phytoplankton, and which must beware of their parent (or their congeners) if these are zooplankton feeders.

The high fecundity of bony fish has led many to believe that they can be exploited very strongly, i.e., that there will always be some recruits even if the parental stock is much reduced. This is called the ‘million egg fallacy’ and it has caused untold damage to fisheries, especially cod fisheries. Still, it is useful to know the relationship between numbers of eggs spawned and the weight of the mothers.

4.2.1.      Exercise 4.1

Task for the student:

·         A given fish species capable of reaching 50 cm, has the following fecundity-length relationship: f = 0.03 × L^3.5, where f is the number of eggs in a ripe female and L its length in cm. The same species has the length-weight relationship W =  0.01 × L^3.0 where W is in g and L in cm. Use these relationships to calculate the relative fecundity of the largest females, and compare this with the relative fecundity of a female near first maturity, near 60% of L_max;

·         Redo the above calculations, but with exponents of 2.5 and 4.5 for the fecundity-length relationships; what are the implications of the results for the usefulness of marine protected areas, where female fish can get old (and hence large)?

Reproduction-related topics covered in FishBase:

4.3.                      Large eggs and parental investment

There are many fish which give birth to live young or which construct nests for their eggs, or which practice buccal incubation, e.g., in the Nile tilapia (see also Fish Quiz link in Exercise 4.2). Some other fish, notably the cartilaginous sharks and rays, give birth to fully-formed pups or produce very large eggs from which fully-formed young are hatched.

4.3.1.      Exercise 4.2

Task for the student:

·         Write a one-page essay on why most fish species broadcast their eggs and exert no parental care, given the fact that parental care reduces the mortality of the young and is practiced by numerous successful groups.

Reproductive strategies (spawning behavior)-related topics covered in FishBase:

4.4.                      Variations on the basic theme

As noted by Darwin, fish are extremely labile in their sex determination, i.e., there are lots of fish which change sex, at least, far more than in other vertebrate classes (e.g., wrasses, parrot fishes, groupers). These are called hermaphrodites. In some fishes the different life (and sex) stages differ so much in color and/or form that they were originally described as different species. Fish also give us neat examples of parasitic males, and other strange behaviors.

4.4.1.      Exercise 4.3

Task for the student:

·         Give one example of a hermaphroditic species where subsequent development phases look very different.

·         Write a one-page essay about the different forms of hermaphroditism that exist and their distribution among fish families, and latitudinally.

·         Write a one-page essay on the group(s) in which parasitic males occur and give possible reasons for their preponderance among these groups.

Reproductive strategies (sex change)-related topics covered in FishBase: